Cleopatra: The Natural Nemesis of Rome

by Maggie Goedecke

Abstract

Cleopatra is most often remembered as the lover of two Roman consuls, Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, thereby forever connecting the Egyptian queen to the history of Rome. The stories of her relationships with the two men do not always paint a flattering picture of Cleopatra, as her reported promiscuity and presumption give her a colorful reputation. Cleopatra is also sometimes seen as a misunderstood woman, someone who was never given a fair opportunity to be accepted as the wife of Marc Antony nor the mother of Caesar's child. Some historians and authors use the issue of Cleopatra's race as a reason that she was ostracized from Roman society, saying that the Romans were prejudiced against Egyptians, and despite Cleopatra's Greek background, would never accept her as a suitable mate for a Roman consul. This theory, however, is far outweighed by the numerous justifications the Roman people had for their distaste of Cleoaptra. It is not surprising that Cleopatra never found acceptance in Rome, as she offered nothing to the relationship between Egypt and Rome, she stood for everything they were against, and little by little, she succeeded in destroying parts of the society that the Roman people had worked to build.

Cleopatra and the province of Egypt are not accepted by the Romans because the relationship between the two city-states is not equal, as Rome does not benefit from a partnership between the two, although Egypt expects to be treated as a people of equal power and prestige. While it is true that Egypt is a country with great wealth and fertile land, thus able to give to Rome ample amounts of gold and grain, these are not reasons enough to make Rome tolerant of Egypt's ambitions. The ancestors of Cleopatra have already worked up an outstanding debt to Rome, and therefore the great wealth of Egypt should rightfully be Roman riches. If Egypt had been held accountable for the debt, the Romans would have no use for a friendly relationship with Cleopatra simply for the benefit of Egyptian riches. Cleopatra does, at times, appear generous and helpful to the dire monetary situation in Rome, as the ABC film, "Cleopatra", shows the queen giving gold to Marc Antony in order to pay and feed his army. This situation would succeed in supporting Egypt's claim to being needed by Rome, if the movie and many other works did not forget that this gold should have been Rome's from the start. Once Caesar removes her brother Ptolemy, and places Cleopatra on the throne of Egypt, and simultaneously their affair begins, the debt to Rome is never spoken of again. This vindication is a justified reason for the Roman people to feel vengeful toward Cleopatra and Egypt. Had Cleopatra not secured the affections of Caesar, the relationship between the two city-states would have been much different, and Egypt would never have been in a position to benefit from the power of Rome.

Cleopatra can also be seen as ambitious to the Roman people, as her main objective in many works is to further the position of Egypt through her relationship with Caesar and Antony. Cleopatra hopes that by having Egypt be a part of whatever plans for expansion she can coerce Caesar and Antony into developing for Rome, her countrymen will gain respect and power for Egypt. The Elizabeth Taylor film, Cleopatra, looks closely at this motive in a scene between Cleopatra and Caesar at the tomb of Alexander the Great. Cleopatra says to Caesar, "Make his dream yours, Caesar. One people on earth living in peace." It is as if Cleopatra is pleading with Caesar to listen and placing her ideas for growth and an increase of the power of Rome into his head, making their dreams the same. It is Cleopatra who desires, "One people on earth living in peace," not Caesar, because it is for the betterment of her country. At this point in the film, Cleoaptra comes forth as the individual in the relationship using manipulation as a tool to get what she desires. To the Roman people it would seem that this foreign queen is using their intimate relationship to pressure Caesar, into a plan that is simply a method for Egypt to further the city-state as a world power.

Not only does this portrayal of Cleopatra as a foreigner meddling in Roman matters add to her poor reputation, but Cleopatra also personifies many of the qualities that Roman society finds unbecoming in a woman. Cleopatra is seen as presumptuous, promiscuous, and lavish in her way of life. The Egyptian queen is more Greek in the way she lives, as her palace and her entire court are equipped with all the luxuries that money can buy. Romans prefer a simpler lifestyle, and in that way Caesar and Antony, are more inclined to the Hellenistic culture than their own, as they each lived very lavishly. Cleopatra and Antony are even said to have had a competition between the two of them to see who could throw the most expensive dinner party. Cleopatra triumphs when, at her party, she dissolves a priceless pearl into a glass of vinegar and drank it. Cleopatra's lifestyle adds to the alienation of herself and Egypt from the Roman people.

Cleopatra's entrance into Rome is the best example of her relationship with the Romans, because it is the first time that the people interact with her and see her lavishness in person. Cleopatra is at a disadvantage with the Roman people at the beginning because of the nature of her visit. Caesar has summoned Cleopatra to Rome in order to further their plans for the expansion of Rome and Egypt as world powers, as well as to see Caesarian, his son by Cleopatra. These reasons are not very acceptable to the Romans, and Cleopatra's entrance into the city is an opportunity for her to win their approval for her and Egypt. The Elizabeth Taylor film is the most elaborate portrayal of the entrance into Rome.

A silence falls as the extraordinary edifice crosses the square. Antony looks awe-struck, Calpurnia dejected and Octavius peevish. Steps are lowered, a red carpet rolled out. Cleopatra, still enthroned, is carried down the monumental steps by black slaves. Caesar rises to greet her. She bows, her breasts looming large around the edges of her deeply cut gold bodice. The crowd roars…

In this display, Cleopatra orchestrates an entourage of half-naked dancers, black slaves, elaborate floats, exotic animals, a mobile sphinx, and herself in a low cut outfit. Cleopatra attempts to appeal to the Romans by presenting them with a mystical display of extravagant pageantry with wild animals and exotic people, because this is what she feels they will expect. In this portrayal, Cleopatra and her troupe are received well by the Roman people, because Elizabeth Taylor succeeds in living up to their expectations. The crowd is able to feast on the foreignness and satiate their fascination with this circus-like exhibition. Those who are not so impressed, however, are the Senate wives and various Senate members themselves, who are aware that Cleopatra's coming to Rome signifies a change in Caesar, their steadfast leader, and a possible change to the way in which the Roman Republic would operate politically.

Mary Butts' novel, Scenes from the Life of Cleopatra, succeeds in showing the marked differences between Cleopatra and Roman women and, more specifically, Egyptian culture and Roman culture, making the lack of acceptance of Cleopatra understandable. The story is told from the perspective of Iras, one of Cleopatra's ladies-in-waiting, which gives insight to the motives and reactions of the Egyptian women to Roman culture. Butts asserts that the Egyptian women looked down upon the Roman women as well, showing their distaste for their unequal relationships with their husbands, the caddy behavior between women, and their adulterous habits, as they do not hesitate to remarry after the death of a husband.

Off she (Cornelia) goes, after pre-posterous I-take-you-for-life-and-evermore-ceremonie, to the new one's house, who used to be her son-in-law, and has it (a child by her last husband). There is something brutal about it. At home we're more civil at least. Perhaps we're happier. Or have learned to be gentler with one another. Anyhow our adulteries are in better style.

The Egyptian women see certain infidelities as wrong and also do not at all find the complacency that Roman wives, or as Iras calls them, the "matronly cows," must show to their husbands to be a redeeming quality. Iras is also incredulous to see that a woman can remarry so easily after the death of her husband. The Egyptian women are shown as being much more deeply rooted in love for their spouses. The differences between the two types of women signify the differences between the cultures in general, and therefore make the animosity between the cultures understandable and reasonable.

The deceitful intentions of the Egyptians also gain them the antipathy of the Roman people. In the Butts work, Iras speaks of the well-planned intent with which Cleopatra brings them to Rome, "Let me repeat the situation you guess so well. Under cover- well, under no particular cover- we are here to insure Cleopatra's marriage with Caesar, according to Roman law…and with that secure Caesarion as our Caesar's heir." The Egyptian women have blatantly come to Rome in order to steal Caesar from Calpurnia and to marry Caesar and Cleopatra, thus putting a bridge in between Rome and their great leader. It is no such wonder that they are disliked when they make no effort to conceal their intention of stealing Rome's leader to form a new union of powers. These intentions are mentioned again in another work, The Life and Times of Marc Antony, a biography of the Roman leader: "It was supposed, of course, that such a marriage (between Marc Antony and Cleopatra) would mean that Cleopatra would abdicate her throne and would become the first lady of the Roman Republic, with Egypt, perhaps, as her private estate." This suggests that Roman people expected to have Cleopatra as the new wife of Caesar and thought it to be a distinct possibility that she would become a partial leader of the Roman Empire and have Egypt remain under her rule. It would be as if Egypt became part of Rome. Cleopatra appears to be changing the makeup of their empire and forcing herself and her country onto the Roman people.

In the eyes of the Romans, Cleopatra is also responsible for the debilitation of Caesar and Antony, two of their most prized warriors and political leaders. In the case of Caesar, Cleopatra urges him to aspire to be more than he originally wants out of his position, and also more than Rome is comfortable with giving him. Caesar is not meant to have the status and power of an emperor or king, it is not the way the empire functions. In the Elizabeth Taylor movie, after Cleopatra has preached to Caesar her ideas about expansion and their partnership to conquer the world as Alexander had dreamed of doing, Caesar changes his ideas on the state of Republic and desires more power in his position, "Is Caesar supposed to come before the Senate everyday like a schoolboy?…Appoint me emperor of Rome." Caesar is no longer satisfied with his role as consul and would like the Senate to give him a title that would, in effect, abolish the role of the Senate and change the political face of Rome from a democracy to a monarchy. Antony is also changed as a result of his relationship with Cleopatra. In the ABC movie, Antony is not able to live up to the legacy of Caesar. Cleopatra urges him to take on more responsibility in the fight against Octavian, and his drinking becomes more frequent until he appears to have become an alcoholic. Cassius Dio, a Roman soldier, speaks of this influence that Cleopatra has over Antony:

And it was this practice more than anything else which gave the impression that she had laid him under some spell and deprived him of his wits…she so enchanted and enthralled not only Antony but all the others who counted for anything with him that she came to entertain the hope that she would rule the Romans as well, and whenever she gave took an oath, the most potent phrase she used were the words, 'So surely as I shall one day give judgement on the Capitol, (39).

Dio explains that the Romans fears that because Antony has so drastically changed his priorities from Roman to Egyptian, that Cleopatra would soon become part of their government and rule alongside her lover. The control that Cleopatra is able to exert over her lover could, have a lasting effect on the Romans as well as Antony himself. Through their relationships with Cleopatra both Caesar and Antony experience drastic changes in their personality and end up much different than as Romans previously knew them.

The battle at Actium also provides reasoning as to why the Romans might dislike Cleopatra, as she can be held accountable for the war, and therefore, can be held responsible for turning Romans against their own countrymen. The idea of a civil war is against Roman beliefs, as can be seen in the attitude that both Caesar and Antony have toward killing their Roman enemies in both the Elizabeth Taylor and ABC movies. When King Ptolemy, Cleopatra's brother, kills Pompey and presents Caesar with his decapitated head, Caesar is furious. Likewise, when Octavian has Brutus killed and presents Antony with his head he is disgusted. Both men are disturbed by the dishonorable death of their countrymen, despite having been their enemies in life. It can thus be inferred that Roman culture is opposed to any sort of civil violence, and the Battle at Actium goes against this moral pillar of their society. The battle is fought because Cleopatra wants Antony to fight for their honor and the safety of Egypt against Octavian and the other Romans who will not recognize their union as legal and do not want Egypt to gain more power through their relationship. Cleopatra is also responsible for the enormity of the war, as she had built almost two hundred Egyptian ships to fight off Octavian's forces. In the eyes of the Roman people, the tragedy of The Battle at Actium, which results in enormous amounts of Roman deaths, can be blamed on Cleopatra because she forces Antony into an aggressive position against Octavian and Rome.

Cleopatra was never successful in garnering a good relationship with the Roman people because of the inherent differences in the way in which each lived their lives. This relationship was crucial to the success of her affairs with both Julius Caesar and Marc Antony, as each man has dedicated their life to serving Rome. Any force that pulls either man away from their duties is bound to be vilified by the Romans. Cleopatra was an ideal person for them to dislike because of her distinctly different lifestyle. The Roman people would have detested anyone who came into their city with the intentions of changing it from the great Republic that it had become. Georgina Masson writes that at the end of her campaign, Cleopatra had been declared the enemy of Rome and no mention was made of Antony, her Roman accomplice. "A spear was cast into the ground before the Temple of Bellona - which on such occasions symbolized enemy territory. Cleopatra alone was declared the enemy of Rome; Antony was not even mentioned." Rome would not stand for anyone to alter their lifestyle and Cleopatra could do nothing to gain their acceptance.

Works Cited

Butts, Mary. Scenes from the Life of Cleopatra. Sun & Moon Press, Los Angelos: 1994.

Carter, John M. The Battle of Actium. Hamish Hamilton, London:1970.

Cleopatra. Dir. Joseph L. Mankiewicz. Perf. Elizabeth Taylor, Richard Burton, and Rex Harrison. Twentieth Century Fox Productions, 1963.

Cleopatra. Prod. Robert Holmes Sr. With Leonora Varela, Timothy Dalton, and Billy Zane. ABC, 1999.

Huges-Hallet, Lucy. Cleopatra: Histories, Dreams, and Distortions. Harpers & Row, London: 1990.

Masson, Georgina. Ancient Rome: From Romulus to Augustus. The Viking Press, New York: 1973.

Weigall, Arthur. The Life and Times of Marc Antony. G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York: 1931.